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 ## Aristotle
+### Organon
+#### De Interpretatione
+- **written letters** = symbols of voice sounds
+- **voice sounds** = symbols of soul affections
+- unconnected (not conjointed) nouns and verbs: regardless of true/false
+- (propositions): necessarily true/false (connection/separation)
+- **noun** = sounds of the voice, meaningful by convention, independent of time, no part of which is meaningful separately (when the sound of the voice becomes a symbol, by convention).
+- **verb** = the noun that also expresses a temporal determination and is what is said about something else, what is said about or exists in a substrate.
+- **speech** = meaningful sound of the voice, in which one of the parts, if separated, is meaningful; all speech is meaningful by convention
+- **declarative speech** = in which there is a true or false statement, derived from a verb
+- first declarative speech = affirmation
+- second = negation
+- All other speech is unified (are unitary?) by connection.
+- Definitional speech is not yet declarative without is/was/will be
+- Unitary declarative speech of two types:
+    - Simple declarative, judgements (belonging/not belonging)
+    - Speech composed of simple declarations
+- **Affirmation** = judgement that attributes something to something
+- **Negation** = judgement that separates something from something
+- Every affirmation is opposed by a negation
+#### Analytica priora
+- Demonstration => demonstrative science
+- **Premise** = statement that affirms or negates something with respect to something
+- A premise can be universal, particular or indefinite
+- **Universal** discourse = expresses belonging to every object or to no object
+- **Particular** discourse = expresses belonging to some objects or not belonging to every object
+- **Indefinite** discourse = expresses belonging or not belonging, regardless of the universal or particular form
+- Demonstrative premise different from dialectical premise
+- **Demonstrative premise** = assumption of one of the two parts of the contradiction
+- **Dialectical premise** = question that presents the contradiction as an alternative
+- Who demonstrates vs who questions
+- **Syllogistic premise** = affirmation or negation of something with respect to something else
+- A premise is demonstrative if it is true and is assumed through the hypotheses established initially
+- A premise is dialectical if it is assumed to be acceptable and is based on opinion (Topics)
+- Premise: syllogistic, demonstrative, dialectical
+- **Term** = element to which the premise is reduced, both the predicate and that which is predicated
+- **Syllogism** = discourse in which, given certain objects, something different from the established objects necessarily results from the fact that these objects exist.
+- **Perfect syllogism** = one that, in addition to what has been assumed, requires nothing else in order to reveal the necessity of the deduction
+- **Imperfect syllogism** = one that requires the addition of one or more objects
+- To say that a term is contained in the totality of another term is equivalent to saying that the second term is predicated of every object indicated by the first
+#### Analytica posteriora
+#### Topica
+- Method for constructing syllogisms (based on opinion) for each formulation of a research question.
+- **Syllogism** = a discourse in which, given certain elements, something different from them necessarily follows.
+- Syllogism
+    - **Demonstrative** syllogism (based on primary and universal elements, worthy of belief)
+    - **Dialectical** syllogism (based on elements of opinion, acceptable to most people or to scholars)
+    - **Eristic** syllogism (based on elements that appear to be based on opinion), conclusive and non-conclusive
+    - **Paralogism** (based on elements specific to science)
+- Method for debating a topic
+- First principles => necessary to penetrate them through elements based on opinion => dialectical activity
+- Elements from which discourses are derived and on which syllogisms are based
+- Discourses => propositions
+- Syllogisms => formulations of a research
+- **Proposition** reveals/is about
+    - **definition** = discourse that expresses objective individual essence (of a name or discourse), convertible predication
+    - **proper** = belongs to that single object and is in a relationship of convertible predication (homo risibilis)
+    - **genus** = predicate immanent to the essence of several objects by species, answers the question ‘what is it?’ (homo est animal), defining expression
+    - **accident** = may or may not belong to one and the same object (white man), not a defining expression
+- **Identity**
+    - Numerical identity (Aristotle = the Philosopher)
+    - Specific identity (Socrates = Plato)
+    - Generic identity (man = horse)
+- Accident, gender, property and definition are in one of the 10 categories: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, having, action, passion.
+#### De Sophisticis elenchis
+- Refutation (sophistical)
+- Paralogisms that only appear to be sophistical refutations, appear as such (through our senses)
+- Syllogism
+- Syllogisms and sophistical refutations (?) may either exist or appear to exist.
+- Syllogism = consisting of elements arranged in such a way as to affirm premises
+- Sophistic refutation = syllogism that deduces a contradictory proposition from a certain conclusion
+- Argument concerning the naming of objects: names and symbols are limited, while the objects represented are numerically indefinite.
+- Faulty reasoning
+- The dual task of those who argue:
+. avoid lying => give justification
+. expose falsehoods => give justification
+- Sophistical arguments species
+- **Argumentation**
+    - didactic (deduces from principles and doctrines)
+    - demonstrative (Analytical Books)
+    - dialectical (deduces from premises based on opinion, conclusion contradictory to thesis)
+    - essayistic (deduces from acceptable and scientific propositions)
+    - eristic (deduces from propositions that **appear** to be based on opinion but are not)
+    - agonistic
+- 5 sophistical goals (in order of priority)
+  - **Refutation**
+  - **Prove opponent's false assertion**
+  - **Reduce to paradox**
+  - **Force opponent into solecism**
+  - **Opponent says nothing substantial, repeats the same thing**
+- Two types of refutations: on the manner of expression and not on the manner of expression
+- Sophistic arguments (apparent refutation) on the way of expressing oneself **caused** [?] by 6 elements
+. **Homonymy** : double or more than one meaning name or expression (in propositions of an argument [correct?])
+. **Ambiguity** : more than one meaning [difference with homonymy?]
+. **Joining of separate terms** : multiple different meanings when joined or separated
+. **Separation of joined terms**: multiple different meanings when joined or separated
+. **Accentuation** : different (or no) meanings with different accents (for writings and poems, less so for oral dialectical discourse)
+. **Form of verbal expression** : the same way of expressing oneself explains what is not the same, according to another point of view
+aspects for hominymy and ambiguity:
+) name expresses several things
+) when we are alone in expressing ourselves in this way
+) overall expression indicates several things (conjunctions become ambiguous)
+- ambiguity: 1, 2 and 6
+- different expression/name as the interlocutor: 3, 4 and 5
+Paralogisms independent of the mode of expression
+. **determination of gender**
+. **double perspective on determination**, absolute or non-absolute validity (limited, spatial, temporal, relative)
+. **ignorance definition refutation** [superclass]
+. **based on consequence** (it is believed that the relationship between reason and consequence is convertible)
+. **assuming the proposition to be proven**
+. **establishing as cause that which is not** (application in syllogism for assurance => demolishing a premise)
+. **reducing several questions to a single one**
+[3]
+- refutation = proof of a proposition that contradicts a certain conclusion
+- false refutation or apparent refutation => reduced to paralogisms in the manner of expression [? 167a35]
+- syllogistic refutation: conclusion follows from premise in a necessary and not just apparent way
 ## Peirce
+### The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893-1913)
+#### Introduction
+- xxiii: He drew a distinction between two kinds of deductive reasoning, corollarial, which draws only those conclusions that can be derived from the analysis and manipulation of the premisses as given, and theorematic, which enriches the infrence base by adding propositions which were not part of the original premiss set–and "which the _thesis_ of the theorem dos not contemplate" (p. 96)
+- xxiv: "Begin, if you will, by calling logic the theory of the conditions which determine reasonings to be secure."
+- xxv: his acceptance of the reality of **actuality (secondness)** and later of **possibility (firstness)**; his realization that human rationality is continuous with an immanent rationality in the natural cosmoms; and his new-found conviction that **logic is a normative science, epistemically dependent on ethics and esthetics**. For Peirce, pragmatism had beome a doctrine that concpetions are fundamentally relative to _aims_ rather than to action per se
+- He argued that pragmatism is a logical, or semiotic, thesis concerning the meaning of a particular kind of symbol, the proposition, and explained that **propositions are signs that must refer to their objects in two ways: indexically, by means of subjects, and iconically, by means of predicates (sel. 12)**. The crucial element of Peirce's argument, form the standpoint of his realism, involved the connection between propositional thought and perception. to preserve his realism, Peirce distinguished percepts, which are not propositional, from perceptual judgments, which are propositional, and which are, furthermore, the "first premisses" of all our reasonings. The process by which perceptual judgment arise from percepts became a key factor in Peirce's case (sel. 13)
+#### 2 What Is a Sign?
+- three principal kinds of signs: icons, indices, and symbols
+- **reasoning must involve all three kinds of signs**, and he claims that **the art of reasoning is the art of marshalling signs**, thus emphasizing the **relationship between logic and semiotics**.
+- §1: **all reasoning is an interpreation of signs of some kind**
+- three different states of mind
+    - a state of mind in which something is present, without compulsion, and without reason; it is called **_Feeling_**
+    - sense of acting and of being acted upon, which is our sense of the reality of things,–both of outward things and of ourselves,–, [5] may be called the sense of **Reaction**. It does not reside in any one Feeling; it comes upon the breaking of one feeling by another feeling. It essentially involves two things acting upon one another.
+    - this third state of mind, or **Thought**, is a sense of learning, and **learning is the means by which we pass from ignorance to knowledge**.
+- §3: There are three kinds of signs.
+        - Firstly, there are _likenesses_, or **icons**; which serve to convey ideas of the things they representy simply by imitating them.
+        - Secondly, there are _indications_, or **indices**; which show something about things, on account of their being physically connected with them. (guidepost, relative pronoun, placed after the name of the thing intended to be denoted)
+        - Thirdly, there are _symbols_, or **general signs**, which have become associated with their meanings by usage. Such are most words, and phrases, and speeches, and books, and libraries.
+- §9: In all reasoning, we have to use a mixture of _likenesses_, _indices_, and _symbols_. We cannot dispense with any of them. The complex whole may be called a _symbol_; for its symbolic, living character is the prevailing one
+- The reasoner makes some sort of mental diagram by which he sees that his alternative conclusion must be true, if the premise is so; and this diagram is an _icon_ or likeness. The rest is symbols; and the whole may be considered as a modified symbol. It is not a dead thing, but carries the mind from one point to another. The art of reasoning is the art of marshalling such signs, and of finding out the truth.
+#### 3 Of Reasoning in General
 ## Dizionario di filosofia di Nicola Abbagnano